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Sultan of the Aq Qoyunlu from 1452 to 1478

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Uzun Hasan
Padishah of Iran[1]
Uzun Hasan on horse, 1460s–1470s.[2]
Sultan of the Aq Qoyunlu
ReignSeptember 1452[a] – January 5, 1478
PredecessorJahangir
SuccessorSultan Khalil
BornFebruary or March 1425[5][6]
Diyarbakır[7]
DiedJanuary 5, 1478 (aged 52)[b]
Winter quarters near Tabriz[8]
Burial
Nasriya tomb complex, Tabriz[8]
SpouseSeljuk Shah Begum
Jan Khatun
Tarjil Khatun
Despina Khatun
IssueSultan Khalil
Ughurlu Muhammad
Zaynal Mirza
Maqsud Beg
Ya'qub Beg
Yusuf Beg
Masih Mirza
Halima Alamshah Khatun
Khanum Khatun
Shahbeg Khatun
Two other daughters
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Names
Uzun Ḥasan ibn ʿAlī ibn Qara Yoluk ʿUthmān
DynastyAq Qoyunlu
FatherAli Beg
MotherSara Khatun
ReligionSunni Islam
TughraUzun Hasan's signature

Uzun Hasan or Uzun Hassan[c] (Persian: اوزون حسن; February or March 1425 – January 5, 1478) was a ruler of the Turkoman Aq Qoyunlu state and is generally considered to be its strongest ruler.[12] Hasan was from the Bayandur tribe and presided over the confederation's territorial apex, when it included parts or all of present-day Iraq, Turkey, Azerbaijan, Iran, Transcaucasia, and Syria.

The younger son of Ali Beg and Sara Khatun, Hasan rose to prominence during the protracted Aq Qoyunlu civil war of the 1440s and 1450s. He seized the confederate capital of Amid from his brother Jahangir in a bloodless coup in September 1452, and became undisputed ruler after defeating Jahangir and his Qara Qoyunlu allies at the Battle on the Tigris in May 1457.[13] Over the following decade he secured his frontiers against the Ayyubids of Hisn Kayfa, the Kurdish principalities of Diyar Bakr, the Dulkadirids and the Karamanids, while conducting raids into Georgia that won him a reputation as a ghazi.[14]

Hasan destroyed the Qara Qoyunlu at the Battle of Muş on November 10, 1467, killing their ruler Jahan Shah, and captured and executed the Timurid sultan Abu Sa'id Mirza in Qarabagh two years later. These victories brought western and central Iran, Fars, Kerman and Arab Iraq under his rule and transformed the Aq Qoyunlu from a regional principality into an empire, with its capital transferred from Amid to Tabriz.[15] Allied with the Venetian Republic against the Ottomans, he invaded Anatolia and Mamluk Syria in 1472 but was decisively defeated by Mehmed II at Otlukbeli on August 11, 1473, a reverse that Woods regards as having ended Aq Qoyunlu expansion and damaged the religious claims underpinning Hasan's authority.[16] His last years were consumed by the rebellion of his son Ughurlu Muhammad and by declining health. He died near Tabriz in January 1478.

Hasan is remembered chiefly for his attempt to convert a nomadic tribal confederation into a settled Perso-Islamic empire. He expanded the central bureaucracy, recruited Iranian administrative families, promulgated a body of commercial, civil, penal and fiscal law known as the qanun-namas, and cultivated the religious establishment and the Sufi orders, including the Safavid order, into which he married both a sister and a daughter.[17] His grandson Ismail I founded the Safavid state in 1501.

Background

The Aq Qoyunlu were a confederation of Turkoman clans of the Oghuz tradition, whose paramount clan, the Bayandur, had established itself in the Bayburt–Erzincan region and around Amid during the fourteenth century.[18] Uzun Hasan's grandfather Qara 'Usman, also written Kara Yülük Osman (died 1435), built the principality out of his participation in Timur's Anatolian and Syrian campaigns. At Aleppo in 1400 Timur rewarded Qara 'Usman's eldest son Ibrahim with the fortified city of Amid, held by Timur since its capture from the Artuqid al-Zahir 'Isa in 1394; Amid remained the capital of the principality until Hasan's conquests of 1467–69, when it was replaced by Tabriz.[19] Timur also recognized Qara 'Usman as legitimate ruler of the Aq Qoyunlu, and after the confiscation of the Samarqand spoils train left him sole leader of the confederation by removing his brothers Ahmad and Pir 'Ali.[20] Ruha came to Qara 'Usman from the Mamluk sultan al-Nasir Faraj, as a reward for the death of the rebel Jakam.[21]

Uzun Hasan was born in February or March 1425, the son of Ali Beg (died 1443) and of Sara Khatun, a daughter of the Bayandur chief Pir 'Ali; his elder brother Jahangir was born about 1417.[22] Qara 'Usman's death in 1435 opened the Aq Qoyunlu Great Civil War, a struggle among his sons and grandsons that lasted more than two decades and drew in the Mamluks, the Ottomans, the Timurids and the rival Qara Qoyunlu confederation.[23]

Reign

The Aq Qoyunlu empire by the end of Uzun Hasan's reign in 1478

At the time of Hasan's ascension, Persia was divided between two rival Turkoman rulers, Jahan Shah of the Qara Qoyunlu (the Black Sheep Turkoman) and Uzun Hasan. After twenty years of fighting, Uzun Hasan eventually defeated Jahan Shah at the Battle of Chapakchur, near the sanjak of Çapakçur[24][25] in present-day eastern Turkey on October 30[26] (or November 11[27]), 1467. Upon the defeat of the latter, the Timurid ruler Abu Sa'id Mirza answered Jahan Shah's son's request for aid, taking much of Jahan Shah's former land and going to war with Uzun Hasan despite the latter's offers of peace. Uzun Hasan then ambushed and captured Abu Sa'id at the Battle of Qarabagh, whereupon he was executed by Yadgar Muhammad Mirza, a rival.[28] In 1463, the Venetian Senate, seeking allies in its war against the Ottomans, sent Lazzaro Querini as its first ambassador to Tabriz,[29] but he was unable to persuade Uzun Hasan to attack the Ottomans.[30] Hasan sent his own envoys to Venice in return.[29] In 1465, Hasan attacked and captured Harput from the Beylik of Dulkadir.[citation needed] In 1471, Querini returned to Venice with Hasan's ambassador Murad.[29] The Venetian Senate voted to send another envoy to Persia, choosing Caterino Zeno after two other men declined.[31] Zeno, whose wife was the niece of Uzun Hasan's wife, was able to persuade Hasan to attack the Turks. Hasan was successful at first, but there was no simultaneous attack by any of the western powers.[30] Uzun Hasan met the Ottomans in battle near Erzincan in 1471, advanced as far as Akşehir, pillaging and destroying Tokat,[32] and fought a battle at Tercan in 1473. He was defeated by Mehmed II at the Battle of Otlukbeli in the late summer of 1473.[33] In 1473, Giosafat Barbaro was selected as another Venetian ambassador to Persia, due to his experience in Crimea, Muscovy, and Tartary.[34] Although Barbaro got on well with Uzun Hasan, he was unable to persuade the ruler to attack the Ottomans again.[30] Shortly afterwards, Hasan's son Ughurlu Muhammad rose in rebellion, seizing the city of Shiraz.[35] After yet another Venetian ambassador, Ambrogio Contarini, arrived in Persia,[30] Uzun Hasan decided that Contarini would return to Venice with a report, while Giosafat Barbaro would stay.[36] Barbaro was the last Venetian ambassador to leave Persia after Uzun Hasan died in 1478.[37][38] While Hasan's sons fought each other for the throne, Barbaro hired an Armenian guide and escaped.[39] Contarini, ambassador to Uzun Hasan's court from 1473 to 1476, described him as follows:[40]

The king is of a good size, with a thin visage and agreeable countenance, and seemed to be about seventy years old. His manners were very affable, and he conversed familiarly with everyone around him, but I noticed that his hands trembled when he raised the cup to his lips.

His name means "tall", and Contarini reported that he was also "very lean".[40]

Ambrogio Contarini, Viaggio al signor Usun Hassan re di Persia ("Voyage to Sir Usun Hassan King of Persia"), 1487

Contarini also wrote:[40]

The empire of Uzun-Hassan is very extensive and is bounded by Turkey and Caramania, belonging to the Sultan, and which latter country extends to Aleppo. Uzun-Hassan took the kingdom of Persia from Causa, whom he put to death. The city of Ecbatana, or Tauris, is the usual residence of Uzun-Hassan; Persepolis or Shiras ... which is twenty-four days journey from thence, being the last city of his empire, bordering on the Zagathais, who are the sons of Buzech, sultan of the Tartars, and with whom he is continually at war. On the other side is the country of Media, which is under subjection to Sivansa, who pays a kind of yearly tribute to Uzun-Hassan. It is said that he has likewise some provinces on the other side of the Euphrates, in the neighbourhood of the Turks. The whole country, all the way to Ispahan ... is exceedingly arid, having very few trees and little water, yet it is fertile in grain and other provisions. His eldest son, named Ogurlu Mohamed, was much spoken of when I was in Persia, as he had rebelled against his father. He had other three sons; Khalil Mirza, the elder of these was about thirty-five years old, and had the government of Shiras. Yaqub Beg, another son of Uzun-Hassan, was about fifteen, and I have forgotten the name of a third son. By one of his wives, he had a son named Masubech, or Maksud beg, whom he kept in prison because he was detected corresponding with his rebellious brother Ogurlu, and whom he afterward put to death. According to the best accounts which I received from different persons, the forces of Uzun-Hassan may amount to about 50,000 cavalries, a considerable part of whom are not of much value. It has been reported by some who were present, that at one time he led an army of 40,000 Persians to battle against the Turks, for the purpose of restoring Pirameth to the sovereignty of Karamania, whence he had been expelled by the infidels.

Legacy

South iwan of the courtyard of the Jameh Mosque of Isfahan, with central Uzun Hasan inscription. The iwan was renovated by Uzun Hasan,[41] who also had the entire surface decorated with enamel colored tiles.[42]

Uzun Hasan was the first Aq Qoyunlu ruler who openly embarked on a campaign to transform the Aq Qoyunlu tribal confederation into a Perso-Islamic sultanate.[43] This transformation campaign commenced after his conquests of northwestern and central Iran, where he, as a byproduct, displaced the waning authority of the Timurids.[43] As his realm grew to preside over ever more Iranian land, he employed Iranian bureaucrats with experience in working for previous local polities to administer the newly obtained Aq Qoyunlu provinces.[43] Although these Aq Qoyunlu-era Iranian bureaucrats did not have the same level of political authority as Nizam al-Mulk (died 1092) did under the Seljuks, they did share the same role of conducting the assimilation of Turkic tribesmen into a political tradition characterized by Perso-Islamic facets.[43] Uzun Hasan also provided for the Islamic aspect of his rudimentary Perso-Islamic state, for he took great care in nourishing Islamic organizations and Sufi orders, including the ever more powerful Safavid order.[43] In the process, he married off his sister to Shaykh Junayd, the then leader of the Safavid order, and one of his daughters to Junayd's son and successor, Shaykh Haydar.[43] Uzun Hasan also ordered the Quran to be translated into Turkic.[44]

The celebrated Hasht Behesht ("Eight Paradises") Palace in Tabriz was started by Uzun Hasan and completed by his son Ya'qub Beg. Khamsa of Nizami, 1481, Tabriz (manuscript commissioned by Ya'qub Beg).[45][46][47][48]

He initiated some financial and administrative reforms to weaken the separatism of the military and tribal nobility and to strengthen his vast state.[citation needed] The sources do not provide detailed information about Uzun Hasan's reformist activities. Although the texts of his laws have not reached us, it is possible to judge the reforms on the basis of the little information available about the laws that the chroniclers called "King Hasan's Laws" or "Dasturi-Hasan Bey". Some documents related to the western territories of the Aq Qoyunlu state, which became part of the Ottoman Empire (Diyarbakır, Mardin, Urfa, etc.), are kept in the Turkish archives. These sources are important in terms of studying feudal relations in the provinces of the Aq Qoyunlu. The general nature of Uzun Hasan's reform is stated in Tarikh al-Qiyasi:[49][better source needed]

Uzun Hasan was fair and kind. He wanted to abolish taxes throughout the country. But the emirs did not agree with him. The Sultan then reduced the taxes by half to twenty-one dirhams ... He clarified the amount of taxes collected in the whole country. Uzun Hasan demanded that lawbreakers be severely punished. The Sultan 'sent the law to every province of the State to put into effect.'

After the conquest of eastern Anatolia in 1517–18, and of Iraq in 1537, the Ottomans preserved the laws of Uzun Hasan (Qānūn-nāma-ye Ḥasan Pādšāh).[50][51] It was after 1540 that the Ottoman regulations replaced the Aq Qoyunlu code.[50] Large parts of his tax and trade laws are recorded in Ottoman sources.[51]

Appearance

Contarini described him as "tall and thin", with "a slightly Tartar expression of countenance, with a constant colour on his face".[52]

Family

Consorts

Four consorts are identified in Woods's genealogical reconstruction of Uzun Hasan's family:[53]

  • Seljuk Shah Begum, the daughter of Uzun Hasan’s paternal uncle, Kur Muhammad. Woods identifies her as Uzun Hasan’s chief wife, and Hoca Sadeddin identifies her as “Uzun Hasan’s most beloved and most favored wife.”[54] She was the mother of Sultan Khalil, Ya'qub, and Yusuf.[55]
  • Jan Khatun, daughter of Dawlatshah Beg Bulduqani-Mardasi, the Kurdish ruler of Eğil and mother of Ughurlu Muhammad.[55] Faruk Sümer likewise identifies Ughurlu Muhammad as the son of the daughter of the ruler of Eğil.[5]
  • Tarjil Khatun, daughter of Umar Beg Zraqi, the Kurdish ruler of Tercil and mother of Zaynal Mirza. Woods dates Uzun Hasan's marriage alliance with Umar Beg's daughter to around 1446–1447.[56]
  • Theodora Megale Komnene, better known as Despina Khatun, daughter of Emperor John IV of Trebizond. The marriage probably took place around 1458; Woods notes evidence placing it between 1457 and 1459.[57]

Sons

Uzun Hasan had at least seven sons. Woods's genealogy identifies the mothers of all seven.[53]

  • Sultan Khalil (1442–1478) – with Seljuk Shah Begum. Woods identifies him as Uzun Hasan's eldest son; he succeeded his father in January 1478.[58]
  • Ughurlu Muhammad (1442 - 1477) – with .an Kathun Woods states that he was born eight months after Sultan Khalil.[59] After rebelling against his father, he eventually took refuge with the Ottoman sultan Mehmed II and married Mehmed's daughter Gevherhan Hatun. Their son Ahmad Beg briefly seized the Aq Qoyunlu throne in 1497.[60]
  • Zaynal Mirza (c. 1448 – August 11, 1473) – with Tarjil Khatun. He was Uzun Hasan's third son and governor of Kirman.[61] He was killed at the Battle of Otlukbeli.[5]
  • Maqsud Beg (died 1478) – with Despina Khatun. Sultan Khalil had his approximately twenty-year-old half-brother executed immediately after Uzun Hasan's death.[62]
  • Yaqub Beg (died 1490) – with Seljuk Shah Begum. Woods describes him as fourteen at Uzun Hasan's death, while noting that Khunji-Isfahani's account makes him thirteen.[63] Ya'qub defeated Sultan Khalil later in 1478 and became sultan.[64]
  • Yusuf Beg (died 1490) – with Seljuk Shah Begum. Sultan Khalil sent Yusuf and his full brother Ya'qub to Diyar Bakr with their mother in 1478.[65] Yusuf died shortly before Ya'qub in the Qarabagh winter camp in 1490.[66] He was the father of the later claimants Alvand and Muhammadi.[67]
  • Masih Mirza – with Despina Khatun. After Ya'qub's death in December 1490, a Bayandur faction attempted to replace Baysunghur with Masih; Masih was killed in the ensuing fighting.[68]

Daughters

Woods's genealogical table records five daughters of Uzun Hasan.[53]

  • Halima Alamshah Khatun (1460 - 1522) – married her cousin Shaykh Haydar, son of Uzun Hasan's sister Khadija Begum and Shaykh Junayd.[11][69] Sultan Ali, Ibrahim, and Isma'il, the founder of the Safavid dynasty, were sons of Haydar by Uzun Hasan's daughter. In the Christian source she was called Martha.[69]
  • Khanum Khatun – married Qasim bin Jahangir.[53]
  • Shahbeg Khatun – married Ghazi Khan Sharvani.[53]
  • An unnamed daughter – with Despina Khatun, married Abd al-Baqi Miranshahi.[53]
  • An unnamed daughter – with Despina Khatun, married Bayram Beg Qaramanlu.[53]

Notes

  1. ^ Woods dates Uzun Hasan's rule from 1457, when the Battle on the Tigris left him unchallenged ruler of the confederation, treating the seizure of Amid in September 1452 as the assumption of co-rule alongside his brother Jahangir.[3] The Encyclopaedia Iranica dates the reign from the autumn of 1452.[4]
  2. ^ January 5, 1478 is the date given by Giosafat Barbaro, who was in Tabriz at the time, and is corroborated by the later Safavid histories Lubb al-tavarikh and Nusakh-i jahan-ara. The contemporary al-Ta'rikh al-ghiyathi instead gives January 2.[6]
  3. ^ Full Arabic-style name: Uzun Ḥasan ibn ʿAlī ibn Qara Yoluk ʿUthmān.[9] He was also known by the kunya Abū l-Naṣr 'Father of Victory'.[10] John E. Woods records the fuller regnal style Abu al-Nasr Hasan Bahadur, and notes that Ottoman and Safavid sources call him Hasan Padishah.[11] His name is anglicized as Hasan the Tall.

References

  1. ^ H.R. Roemer, "The Safavid Period", in Cambridge History of Iran, Vol. VI, Cambridge University Press 1986, p. 339: "Further evidence of a desire to follow in the line of Turkmen rulers is Ismail's assumption of the title 'Padishah-i-Iran', previously held by Uzun Hasan."
  2. ^ Robinson, Basil William (1993). Studies in Persian Art. Pindar Press. p. 20. ISBN 978-0-907132-43-1. No other prince of the time can be credibly associated with this work, and the galloping bearded prince in the center of the composition, we may be permitted to recognize a contemporary portrait of the founder of the White Sheep Turkman power. Uzun Hasan.
  3. ^ Woods 1999, pp. 80, 85, 211.
  4. ^ Quiring-Zoche, R. (1986). "Aq Qoyunlū". In Yarshater, Ehsan (ed.). Encyclopaedia Iranica. Vol. II. Routledge & Kegan Paul. p. 165. Uzun Ḥasan successfully resumed the war with the Qara Qoyunlū and in the autumn of 856/1452 seized Āmed in a bloodless coup while Jahāngīr was away on a military expedition in Kurdistan.
  5. ^ a b c Faruk Sümer (1988–2016). "UZUN HASAN (ö. 882/1478) Akkoyunlu hükümdarı (1452–1478).". TDV Encyclopedia of Islam (44+2 vols.) (in Turkish). Istanbul: Presidency of Religious Affairs, Centre for Islamic Studies.
  6. ^ a b Woods 1999, p. 267.
  7. ^ Kia, Mehrdad. The Ottoman Empire: A Historical Encyclopedia [2 Volumes]. ABC-CLIO, 2017.
  8. ^ a b Woods 1999, p. 123.
  9. ^ Minorsky & Bosworth 2000.
  10. ^ Leube, Georg (2023). Relational Iconography: Representational Culture at the Qaraquyunlu and Aqquyunlu courts (853/1449 CE to 907/1501 CE). Studies in Persian Cultural History. Leiden: Brill. p. 128. ISBN 978-90-04-54151-1.
  11. ^ a b Woods 1999, p. 107.
  12. ^ V. Minorsky, "The Aq-qoyunlu and Land Reforms (Turkmenica, 11)", Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies, 17 (1955), pp. 449–462: "There still remain many interesting and important problems connected with the emergence in the 14th century of the Turkman federations of the Qara-qoyunlu (780–874/1378–1469) and Aq-qoyunlu (780–908/1378–1502). The roots of the Persian Risorgimento under the Safavids (1502–1722) go deep into this preparatory period."
  13. ^ Woods 1999, pp. 80, 85.
  14. ^ Woods 1999, pp. 88–95.
  15. ^ Woods 1999, pp. 96–100.
  16. ^ Woods 1999, pp. 118–121.
  17. ^ Woods 1999, pp. 105–110.
  18. ^ Woods 1999, pp. 33–35.
  19. ^ Woods 1999, pp. 41–42.
  20. ^ Woods 1999, p. 42.
  21. ^ Woods 1999, p. 46.
  22. ^ Woods 1999, pp. 44, 253, 267.
  23. ^ Woods 1999, pp. 61–63.
  24. ^ Alexander Mikaberidze (2011). Conflict and Conquest in the Islamic World: A Historical Encyclopedia, Volume 1. ABC-CLIO. p. 907. ISBN 978-1-59884-336-1. Retrieved February 13, 2013.
  25. ^ Peter Jackson; Lawrence Lockhart, eds. (1986). The Cambridge History of Iran, Volume 6. Cambridge University Press. p. 173. ISBN 978-0-521-20094-3. Retrieved February 13, 2013.
  26. ^ Browne, Edward Granville (2009). A History of Persian Literature Under Tartar Dominion (A.D. 1265–1502). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 89. Retrieved February 4, 2013.
  27. ^ Peter Jackson; Lawrence Lockhart, eds. (1986). The Cambridge History of Iran, Volume 6. Cambridge University Press. p. 1120. ISBN 978-0-521-20094-3. Retrieved February 4, 2013.
  28. ^ Stevens, John (1715). The History of Persia. London: Jonas Brown.
  29. ^ a b c Mehmed the Conqueror & His Time, Franz Babinger, Trans. Ralph Manheim, Princeton University Press; 1992, p. 305. ISBN 0-691-01078-1
  30. ^ a b c d The Cambridge History of Iran, William Bayne Fisher, Peter Jackson, Laurence Lockhart, New York: Cambridge University Press, 1986, p. 377. ISBN 0-521-20094-6
  31. ^ Mehmed the Conqueror & His Time, Franz Babinger, Trans. Ralph Manheim, Princeton University Press; 1992, p. 306. ISBN 0-691-01078-1
  32. ^ Lambton, Lewis & Holt 1985, p. 299.
  33. ^ Babinger, Franz (1978). Mehmed the Conqueror and his Time. Bollingen Series XCVI. ed. by William C. Hickman, trans. by Ralph Manheim. Princeton University Press. pp. 314–315. ISBN 0-691-09900-6.
  34. ^ Historical Account of Discoveries and Travels in Asia, Hugh Murray, Edinburgh, A. Constable and Co; 1820. p. 10.
  35. ^ Historical Account of Discoveries and Travels in Asia, Hugh Murray, Edinburgh, A. Constable and Co; 1820. p. 15.
  36. ^ Historical Account of Discoveries and Travels in Asia, Hugh Murray, Edinburgh, A. Constable and Co; 1820. p. 19.
  37. ^ Biographie universelle, ancienne et moderne, J. Fr. Michaud and Louis Gabriel Michaud, Paris: Michaud, 1811–28, p. 327.
  38. ^ Mehmed the Conqueror & His Time, Franz Babinger, Trans. Ralph Manheim, Princeton University Press; 1992, p. 322. ISBN 0-691-01078-1
  39. ^ Historical Account of Discoveries and Travels in Asia, Hugh Murray, Edinburgh, A. Constable and Co; 1820. p. 16.
  40. ^ a b c Kerr 1811.
  41. ^ Grabar, Oleg (1990). The Great Mosque of Isfahan. New York University Press. p. 30. ISBN 978-0-8147-3027-0. It contains an inscription dated 1475-76, the time of Uzun Hassan, the great ruler of the Aq Qoyunlu dynasty, mentioning the sorry shape of this magnificent mosque ( al-jamic al-muni') and the restoration of the ceiling of the iwan.
  42. ^ Bloom, Jonathan Max; Blair, Sheila (2009). The Grove Encyclopedia of Islamic Art and Architecture. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780195309911. The court façade (see fig. 2) was clad with tile revetment; the stunning tile mosaic on the qibla iwan, for example, was ordered by the Aqqoyunlu ruler Uzun Hasan in 1475–6.
  43. ^ a b c d e f Dale, Stephen Frederic (2020). "Turks, Turks and türk Turks: Anatolia, Iran and India in Comparative Perspective". In Peacock, A.C.S.; McClary, Richard Piran (eds.). Turkish History and Culture in India: Identity, Art and Transregional Connections. Brill. p. 73.
  44. ^ Langaroodi & Negahban 2015.
  45. ^ Babaie, Sussan (2022). "Peripatetic Kings and Palaces: From Tabriz to Qazvin in the Sixteenth Century". Isfahan and its Palaces: Statecraft, Shi'ism and the Architecture of Conviviality in Early Modern Iran. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press. p. 31. doi:10.1515/9780748633760-009. ISBN 9780748633760. Hasht Behesht had been begun by the Aqqoyunlu Sultan Uzun Hasan (1453–78), Romano's Sultan Assambei or Hasan Beg, and completed by his son and successor Yaqub
  46. ^ Balilan Asl, Lida (2019). "The Physical Structure of Tabriz in Shah Tahmasp Safavid's Era Based on Matrakçı's Miniature". METU Journal of the Faculty of Architecture. 36 (2): 177, 178 n. 18.
  47. ^ Melville, Charles (1981). "Historical Monuments and Earthquakes in Tabriz". Iran: 170. The Hasht Bihisht (...) a government palace (daulat-khana) of this name, built in 891/1486 in the Bagh-i Sahibabad by the White Sheep Turkomans, though probably on the site of a building founded by Jahanshah.
  48. ^ Golombek, Lisa; Wilber, Donald Newton (1988). The Timurid Architecture of Iran and Turan. Vol. 1. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. pp. 178–179. ISBN 978-0691035871. At Tabriz, a major garden created by the Aq Qoyunlu ruler, Uzun Hasan, was visited by a Venetian merchant, who gave his impressions in some detail. His visit probably took place between 1460 and 1470. The garden was called the Hasht Behisht, "Eight Paradises," after its central palace.
  49. ^ V. Minorsky, "A Civil and Military Review in Fārs in 881/1476", BSOAS 10, 1939, pp. 141–178.
  50. ^ a b Halil İnalcık (1973). The Ottoman Empire: The Classical Age 1300–1600. p. 71.
  51. ^ a b Quiring-Zoche 1986. sfn error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFQuiring-Zoche1986 (help)
  52. ^ Browne, Edward Granville (2013). A History of Persian Literature Under Tartar Dominion (A.D. 1265–1502). p. 406.
  53. ^ a b c d e f g Woods 1999, p. 211.
  54. ^ ATICI ARAYANCAN, Ayşe. "AKKOYUNLU SARAYINDA BİR BEGÜM YA DA MEHD-İ ULYÂ: SELÇUKŞAH BEGÜM". DergiPark.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link)
  55. ^ a b Woods 1999, pp. 211, 252.
  56. ^ Woods 1999, pp. 197–198, 211, 252.
  57. ^ Woods 1999, p. 253.
  58. ^ Woods 1999, pp. 125, 252.
  59. ^ Woods 1999, p. 252.
  60. ^ Woods 1999, pp. 122, 212.
  61. ^ Woods 1999, pp. 100, 252.
  62. ^ Woods 1999, pp. 127, 211.
  63. ^ Woods 1999, pp. 125, 267.
  64. ^ Woods 1999, p. 128.
  65. ^ Woods 1999, p. 127.
  66. ^ Woods 1999, pp. 145–146.
  67. ^ Woods 1999, pp. 159, 211.
  68. ^ Woods 1999, pp. 151, 211.
  69. ^ a b Ghereghlou 2016.

Sources

Further reading

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Preceded by Ruler of the Aq Qoyunlu
1452–1478 		Succeeded by
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